Deletion rule is a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.For example,in the pronunciation of such words as sign,design,and paradigm,there is no［g］ sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g.But in their corresponding forms signature, designation,and paradigmatic,the［g］represented by the letter g is pronounced.
Componential analysis
Componential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word menaing.The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components ,call semantic features.This is parallel to the way a phoneme is analyzed into smaller components called distinctive features.For example,the word “man”is analyzed as comprising the features of ＋HUMAN,＋ADULT,＋MALE.
One advantage of Componential analysis is that by specifying the semantic features of certain words,it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning.
Componential analysis provides an insight into the meaning of words and a way to study the relationships between words that are related in meaning.
1.Sentence meaning vs. Utterance meaning
A sentence is a grammatical concept,and the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract,intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication.But actually utter in the course of communication ,it becomes an utterance.A speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose,then we treating it as an utterance.
The meaning of a sentence is abstract ,and decontextualized, but,an utterance is concrete ,and context-dependent.the meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning,it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication,or simply in a context.The utterance meaning of the sentence varies with the context in which it is uttered.
While most utterances takes the form of grammatically complete sentences,some utterances do not,and some cannot even be restored to complete sentences.
1.Sentence ambiguity
The study of sentence ambiguity has also contributed to how syntactic processing is accomplished .For example,the word rose in They all rose is ambiguous.It can be related either to stand or to flower.To see whether or not only one meaning is activated, researchers use a lexical decision experiment in which They all rose is used as the prime.After seeing the sentence subjects were presented with either the word flower or stand. Response times to both words,that is, both meanings of the word in the sentence were activated.
predication analysis
predication analysis a way to analyze the meaning of sentences.there is the basic unit is call predication ,which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.this applies to all form of sentence. A predication consists of argument and predicate.
1.Speech act theory
Austin's model of speech acts
Speech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic of language. It was originated with British philosopher John Austin in the late 50's of the 20th century.He made a distinction between what he called "constatives" and "performatives". Constatives were statements that either state or describe ,and were thus verifiable ,for example,"The star is in the sky."
Performatives ,on the other hand, were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state,and were not verifiable,for example,"I do."
Later,Austin gave up his initial distinction between constatives and performatives.According to his new model ,a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking： locutionary act ,illocutionary act , and perlocutionaty act.
A locutionary act is the act of uttering words,phrases,clauses.it is the act of converying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon and phonology .
An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention,it is the act performed in saying something.
A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it is the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance,it is the act performed by saying something.
Let's take an example,"You have left the door wide open."
The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of all the words "you","have","door","open",etc.thus expressing what the words literally mean.
The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he expressed his intention of speaking , i.e. Asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint , depending on the context.
The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance,If the hearer gets the speaker's message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door,the speaker has successfully brought the change in the real world he has intended to.then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.
Principle of conversation
Principle of conversation is a principle in conversation,in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate ,otherwise,it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.This general principle is called the Conversation Principle.
To be more specific,there are four maxims under this general principle...
1.the maxim of quantity
2.the maxim of quality
3.the maxim of relation
4.the maxim of manner
When any of these maxims is flouted , does the "conversational implicature" occur.For example,the following four conversation exchanges illustrate the violation of the four maxims---
1.
A.when is Susan's farewell party?
B.Sometime next month.
This is said when it is known to both A and B that B knows exactly when Susan is going to give her farewell party.thus B is withholding some of the information required at this stage of conversation and thus flouting the maxim of quantity.
2.
A.would you like to join us for the picnic on Sunday?
B.I'm afraid I have got a class on Sunday.
This is said when it is known to both A and B that B is not having any class that will prevent him from going for the picnic.thus B is saying something that he himself knows to be false and is flouting the maxim of quality.
2.
A.How did the math exam go today,John?
B.we had a basketball match with the other class and we beat them.
This is said when it is known to both A and B that is entirely possible for B to tell A how well or how poorly he did in the math exam.B's response is thus totally irrelevant to A's question .therefore hi is flouting the maxim of relation.
2.
A.Shall we get something for the kids?
B.Yes,but i veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.
This is said when it is known to both A and B that B has no diffculty in pronouncing the word ice-cream.thus B has flouted the maxim of manner.
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